Hyphens & Capitalization in Headings: Linking Words to Clarify Meaning

Hyphens & Capitalization in Headings

two footstools vs. two-foot stools

Linking Words to Clarify Meaning

Clarifying Meaning

Hyphens are used to avoid ambiguity for the reader, yet they seem to cause more difficulty for writers than any other form of punctuation.

NO HYPHEN	HYPHEN
Two footstools sold for a half-million dollars at Sothebys. (quantity)	Two-foot stools sold for a half-million dollars at Sothebys. (measurement of stools)
We have used bookstores for our meetings. (utilized the location)	We have used-book stores for our meetings. (possess stores with preowned books)
When the patient recovers, take him to his room. (regains health)	When the patient re-covers, take him to his room. (covers himself again with clothing)
Early American Buys at Furniture Auction (An individual came before the expected time.) buys = (v.)	Early-American Buys at Furniture Auction (A style of furniture is available at a good price.) buys = (n.)

Also see: Numbers as adjectives

Resources for Determining Use

Hyphens are used to clarify confusing word use or phrasing. Dictionaries do not always agree on whether a word should be written as one word (closed), two words (open) or with a hyphen (hyphenated).

Use a dictionary such as Longman LDOCE, Merriam Webster, American Heritage or Dictionary.com (includes multiple resources) to check a word in question. If someone challenges your word usage, cite your source.
Use your spell checker, but be aware that it cannot distinguish the meaning of words within the given the context as well as you can.
Use the The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) 30-day online trial, and The Associated Press Stylebook (AP), $25 per year, as resources.

Hyphen History: Words in Transition (CMOS 7.85)

Linked words change through time. As they become more closely associated, they move through the three phases shown below. It is hard to know whether a term made up of two closely associated words needs a hyphen or not. Use a dictionary as your resource and as your defense if challenged.

TWO WORDS (OPEN)	HYPHENATED	ONE WORD (CLOSED)
Phase 1: A term is created for a specific use.	Phase 2: After a period of use, the term may enter conventional use, and then a hyphen is added as a temporary way of the linking the two words.	Phase 3: As the word becomes accepted, included in dictionaries, the bond between the two words becomes more permanent resulting in a compound word.
good bye	good-bye	goodbye
on line	on-line	online
electronic mail	e-mail	email (not formally accepted as one word yet)
bird feeder, bird nest (bird words in transition)	bird-dog, bird-watch	birdhouse, birdseed, birdcage, birdbath
vice president, vice admiral (vice words in transition)	vice-consul, vice-chancellor, president-elect	viceroy

Hyphens

Word Use

Compound Words — (CMOS 7.83)

TYPE	EXAMPLES
Use a hyphen between two nouns of equal importance:	singer-songwriter, city-state, producer-director
Use a hyphen between two numbers spelled out: tens and units (21 – 99): AP "when large numbers must be spelled out, use a hyphen to connect a word ending in -y to another word: twenty-one, fifty-five, etc." CMOS spells out numbers one to ninety-nine; AP & APA spells out numbers one to nine)	I counted sixty-five. She is twenty-one. BUT: I met her in 1991. Do not spell out the names of years.

TYPE

EXAMPLES

Use a hyphen between two nouns of equal importance:

singer-songwriter, city-state, producer-director

Use a hyphen between two numbers spelled out: tens and units (21 – 99):

AP "when large numbers must be spelled out, use a hyphen to connect a word ending in -y to another word: twenty-one, fifty-five, etc."

CMOS spells out numbers one to ninety-nine; AP & APA spells out numbers one to nine)

I counted sixty-five.

She is twenty-one.

BUT: I met her in 1991. Do not spell out the names of years.

Letter Collision or Readability — (CMOS 7.85)

TYPE	EXAMPLES
Use a hyphen between two letters to avoid a word that can be misread: Including the hypehn visually separates the final letter of the prefix and the initial letter of the root word.	reenter re-enter; reelection re-election, antiitch anti-itch, coopt co-opt, deice de-ice, shelllike shell-like, nonnative non-native (but not cooperate and coordinate)
Use a hyphen to distinguish homonyms: Including the hyphen more easily differentiates the word from another word with a closed spelling.	recreation re-creation; unionized un-ionized, remark re-mark, resign re-sign, reserve re-serve; recover re-cover

Line Breaks for Printed Material

TYPE	EXAMPLE
Use a hyphen to split a word to accommodate a fixed sentence length in print:	Hyphens cause writers more trou- ble than any other form of punc- tuation, except perhaps commas. This is because the hyphen has no equivalent in speech; it is punctua- tion created purely by the needs of print.

TYPE

EXAMPLE

Use a hyphen to split a word to accommodate a fixed sentence length in print:

Hyphens cause writers more trou- ble than any other form of punc- tuation, except perhaps commas. This is because the hyphen has no equivalent in speech; it is punctua- tion created purely by the needs of print.

Linking Words that Modify a Noun — (CMOS 7.86)

TYPE	EXAMPLES
Use a hyphen to link two nouns that modify another noun:	The Menlo-Atherton train station, The California-Nevada border
Use a hyphen to clarify a modifier and a noun: (hyphens and readability; CMOS 7.85)	[three foot] stools three-foot stools;
Use a hyphen to link multiple words together as modifiers: (multiple hyphens; CMOS 7.88)	The forget-me-not state flower He is a Jack-of-all-trades guy. If you are a do-it-yourself person, don't call us for an estimate. We offer one-to-one classes at convenient times.
Use a hyphen to link a modifying fraction:	a one-half inch piece (adj.) but not one half of Congress (n.) a quarter-mile run (adj.) ; a half-mile race but not a half mile (n.);
Use a hyphen to link a modifying number:	an eight-hour day, a two-week vacation; a 40-hour-work week, It was a two-thousand-twenty-six dollar-fine, a fourteenth-century church, twenty-first century literature, a sixteen-year-old girl, a ninety-year-old woman; a third-floor apartment
Use a hyphen to link a modifying color:	emerald-green lake, coal-black eyes but emerald green (n.) coal black (n.) purplish-pink paint, purple and pink paint but black-and-white paint
Use a hyphen to indicate an inexact amount: (odd)	sixty-odd people
Use a hyphen to link an adjective and a noun modifier: (adjective+noun; CMOS 7.9)	small-state senators, high-stakes gambling, middle-class neighborhood, kilowatt-hour meter, same-sex marriage, a tenure-track position
Use a hyphen to link a modifying adverb (not ending in -ly): ill-, well-, lesser-, little-, much-, best-, most (CMOS 7 .86)	ill-favored project, well-known person, little-known fact, best-selling novel, most-skilled workers
Use a hyphen to link a modifying -ing participle: (before and after the noun)	mind-blowing experience, thirst-quenching drink, tongue-lashing speech; cutting-edge technology, chopping-block technique
Use a hyphen to link a modifying -ed participle: (before and after the noun)	web-based course, fast-paced movie, double-padded shoulders, open-mouthed jar, mass-produced cars; dressed-up people, stuffed-shirt executive
cross-, full-, ex-, ever-, e-	cross-country race, a full-length mirror, the ever-present road congestion,ex-boyfriend, e-commerce web site
- free, -sided, -fold, -elect	a toll-free number, a nicotine-free cigarette, wood-sided house, four-fold recipe, president-elect, mayor-elect;
Use a hyphen to link a proper noun and an adjective:	Afro-American woman (but not African American) Greco-Roman wrestling; Franco-American Studies Center (but not French Canadian or Latin American)
Use a hyphen to link a relationship term: (-in-law, great-, self-)	sister-in-law, mother-in-law, father-in-law, great-grandmother, self-knowledge study, self-educated man, self-possessed child
Use a hyphen to link a modifying prefix with a proper noun or number: Separate prefixes from proper nouns with a hyphen.	pro-British forces, anti-Semitic statement (prefixes with proper nouns), pre-1900 coin (prefixes with dates), mid-1985 to late 1986 music, pro-American magazine, un-American activities

Range of Time or Variation — (CMOS 7.89)

TYPE	EXAMPLES
Use a hyphen to link a range of time: (hyphen with word space; CMOS 7.89)	thirty- and sixty-minute massages; twenty- to thirty-five people; five- or ten-minute intervals
Use a hyphen to link a range or variation: (hyphen with word space; CMOS 7.89)	long- and short-term memory; over- and under-worked employees; small- and large-scale construction projects

Prefixes

SOURCE 1: The Chicago Manual of Style — Compound words formed with prefixes are normally "closed" (one word).

THE CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (CMOS) 7.9 #3

PREFIXES	HYPHENATED	ONE WORD
ante, anti, bi, bio, co, counter, cyber, extra, hyper, infra, inter, intra, macro, mega, meta, micro, mid, mini, multi, neo, non, over, post, pre, pro, proto, pseudo, re, semi, social, super, supra, trans, ultra, un, under	meta-analysis, multi-institutional, pro-life,	All prefixes are usually one word. antebellum, antibacterial, binomial, bioscience, coauthor, counterclockwise, cyberspace, extrafine, hypertext, infrastructure, interfaith, intramural, macroeconomics, megavitamins, metadata, microeconomics, midcareer, minivan, multicolor, neonatal, nonviolent, overwork, posttest, preterm, promarket, prototype, pseuonym, semiconductor, sociolinguistics, subzero, supermarket, supraorbital, transatlantic,ultrasound, unfunded, underrate
un-, pro-, anti-, pre-, trans-, mid-, etc.	Except with proper nouns: un-American, pro-Arab, pro-Canadian, anti-Reagan, trans-America, mid-July, post-Vietnam, un-English, Pre-Rafaelite, pseudo-Tudor, pre-1900
anti-, re-, co, non, un-, intra-, etc.	Except when separating root words with same initial letter: anti-intellectual, re-entry, co-own, un-unionized, intra-arterial, semi-invalid
sub-	Except with double prefixes: sub-subparagraph

Prefixes

SOURCE 2: The Associated Press Stylebook — Compound words formed with prefixes are mostly "closed" with more exceptions than CMOS.

THE ASSOCIATED PRESS STYLEBOOK (AP) p.51

PREFIXES	HYPHENATED	ONE WORD
anti-, pro-	Except when indicating favor for some party, system, idea: pro-British, pro-choice, pro-labor, pro-environment, pro-communist, anti-Semitic anti-abortion, anti-war, anti-labor, anti-aircraft, anti-social	Most prefixes are usually one word.
co-	co-author, co-chairman, co-defendent, co-host, co-owner, co-pilot, co-signer, co-star, co-worker	coed, coeducation, coequal, coexist, cooperate, coordinate
non-	Except when separating a prefix ending in the same letter that begins the root word: non-native, non-nuclear	(usually one word)
pre-	Except when prefixes precede proper nouns and dates: pre-Christian, pre-Columbian, pre-K pre-1900	(usually one word)
post-	post-bellum, post-mortem (but post office)	(usually one word)
trans-	trans-American (but transatlantic, transcontinental)	(usually one word)
sub-	Except with double same prefix: sub-sub paragraph	(usually one word)

*These two words are exceptions to rule in which a hyphen is used after a prefix that ends in the same vowel that begins the root word.

Prefixes

SOURCE 3: American Psychological Association — Compound words formed with prefixes are mostly "closed" with few exceptions.

PUBLICATION MANUAL OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) p.97

PREFIXES	HYPHENATED	ONE WORD
mini, multi, non, over, phobia, post, pre, pro, pseudo, quasi, re, semi socio, sub, super, supra, ulta, un, under	Most prefixes are usually one word.	minisession, multiphase, nonsignificant, overaggressive, agora phobia, quasiperiodic, reevaluate, semidarkness, socioeconomic, subtest, superordinate, supraliminal, ultrahigh, unbiased, underdeveloped
OCCURENCE 1 A compound is which the word is capitalized, a numer, an abbreviation, more than one word	pro-British, post-911, pre-UCB application, non-native-language-students
OCCURENCE 2 All self- compounds	self-test, self-motivated, self-esteems
OCCURENCE 3 Words that could be misunderstood	re-pair, re-form, un-ionized
OCCURENCE 4 Words in which the prefix ends and the base word begins with the same vowel.	meta-analysis, anti-intellectual, co-occur	BUT NOT RE- reevaluate

Resources:

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed. Washington, D.C: American Psycological Association, 2010. Print.
AP Stylebook. The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law. 42nd ed. New York: Basic Books, 2007. Print.
AP Stylebook. 2010. Web. http://www.apstylebook.com/
The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003. Print.
The Chicago Manual of Style Online. 2010. Web. http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org
The Gregg Reference Manual by William A. Sabin.10th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2005. Print

Hyphens - Capitalization

Capitalization of Hyphenated Words in Titles, Headings and Headlines

There is variation on minor points. Choose a style and carry it through your writing. See comparisons in chart below.

STYLE MANUAL	RULES
Commonly Used Rule (source unknown)	(1) Capitalize the second word in compound words if it is a noun or proper adjective or the words have equal weight (Cross-Reference, Pre-Microsoft Software, Run-Time); (2) Do not capitalize the second word if it is another part of speech or a participle modifying the first word (How-to, Take-off, Flat-sided, Gun-toting).
1) AP	Headlines: Only the first word and proper nouns are capitalized. Use numerals for all numbers and single quotes for quotes. (p. 112) (Online: AP systems convert headlines a version will all words capitalized.)
2) Gregg	"In a heading or title, capitalize all the elements except articles (a, an, and the), short prepositions (at, by, for, in, of, off, on, out, to, and up), and short conjunctions (and, as, but, if, or, and nor)."
3) MLA	MLA style has its own rules for capitalizing headings and titles. “The rules for capitalizing titles are strict. In a title or a subtitle, capitalize the first word, the last word, and all principal words, including those that follow hyphens in compound terms” (Gibaldi 103). These are commonly referred to as heading caps. Do not capitalize the following unless they begin or end a title, or follow a colon: (1) Articles: a, an, the; (2) Prepositions: against, between, in, of , to; (3) Conjunctions: and, but, for, nor, or, so, ye.; (4) Infinitive: to.
4a) CMOS Simple	Capitalize only the first element unless any subsequent element is a proper noun or adjective.
4b) CMOS Traditional	(1) Always capitalize the first element; (2) Capitalize any subsequent elements unless they are articles, prepositions, coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor) or such modifiers as flat or sharp following musical key symbol; (3) If the first element is merely a prefix or combining form that could not stand by itself as a word (anti, pre, etc.), do not capitalize the second element unless it is a proper noun or proper adjective; (4) Do not capitalize the second element in a hyphenated spelled-out number (twenty-one, etc); (5)Break a rule when it doesn't work.

The Associated Press. The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law. 42 Edition. New York: Basic Books, 2007, p.112.
Sabin, William A. The Gregg Reference Manual. 10th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2005, pp. 117-118
Gibaldi, Joseph, MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 6th ed. New York: MLA, 2003. <www.mla.org>
University of Chicago Press. The Chicago Manual of Style. 15th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003, pp. 367-368. <www.chicagomanualofstyle.org>

Capitalization of Hyphenated Words in Titles or Headings

Comparison

GREGG	AP and CMOS – Simple	CMOS – Traditional
CAPITALIZE FIRST ELEMENT	CAPITALIZE FIRST ELEMENT	CAPITALIZE FIRST ELEMENT
Cross-Country Skiing	Cross-country Skiing	Cross-Country Skiing
Self-Actualization Workshop	Self-actualization Workshop	Self-Actualization Workshop
CAPITALIZE SECOND ELEMENT - if not article, short preposition or conjunction	Generally, doesn't capitalize second element.	CAPITALIZE SECOND ELEMENT - if not article, prep, conjunction or musical flat
Ever-Present Road Congestion	Ever-present Road Congestion	Ever-Present Road Congestion
President-Elect Barack Obama	President-elect Barack Obama	President-Elect Barack Obama
City-States in Nineteenth Century Europe	City-states in Nineteenth Century Europe	City-States in Nineteenth Century Europe
A Series of Web-Based Courses	A Series of Web-based Courses	A Series of Web-Based Courses
Cutting-Edge Nanotechnology	Cutting-edge Nanotechnology	Cutting-Edge Nanotechnology
Self-Sustaining City of the Future	Self-sustaining City of the Future	*Self-Sustaining City (participles often lowercase)
Full-Fashioned Clothing	Full-fashioned Clothing	Full-Fashioned Clothing (participles often lowercase)
Over-the-Counter Testing Kits	Over-the-counter Testing Kits	BUT: Over-the-Counter Testing Kits (article)
Bread-and-Butter Basics	Bread-and-butter Basics	BUT: Bread-and-Butter Basics (conjunction)
E-Flat Minor Melody	E-flat Minor Melody	BUT: E-flat Minor Melody; (flat – sharp)
	CAPITALIZE SECOND ELEMENT –if a proper noun or proper adjective	CAPITALIZE SECOND ELEMENT – if a proper noun or proper adjective
Franco-American Studies Center	Franco-American Studies Center	Franco-American Studies Center
Anti-American Protestors Storm Embassy	Anti-American Protestors Storm Embassy	Anti-American Protestors Storm Embassy
Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs	BUT: Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs	BUT: Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Treatments
Pro-Reagan Viewpoints (proper noun)	Pro-Reagan Viewpoints (proper noun)	Pro-Reagan Viewpoints (proper noun)
Pro-life Viewpoints (Hyphenate when coining words that denote support for something.)	BUT: Prolife Viewpoints (closed in CMOS; hyphenated in AP)	BUT: Prolife Viewpoints (not a proper noun)
		DO NOT CAPITALIZE – spelled out number (21-99)
Fifty-Piece Orchestra Plays Sold-out Hall	Fifty-piece Orchestra Plays Sold-out Hall	Fifty-Piece Orchestra Plays Sold-out Hall
Fifty-One Violinists Compete for Title	Fifty-one Violinists Compete for Title	BUT: Fifty-one Violinists Compete (spelled number)
		BREAK RULES –if consistent look is needed
		*Twenty-First-Century Furnishings ("first" if lowercase, would look inconsistent)
		*Hand-me-downs (lowercase short unstressed elements)
		*Write-ins and Cross-outs (lowercase short unstressed elements)

Common Mistakes (in Titles or Headlines)

Before capitalizing words in a title or headline, check in the dictionary to see if a word should be hyphenated.

ERROR	FIX
Micro-Chip to Track HIV-Postive Residents (not micro-chip)	Microchip to Track HIV-Postive Residents (microchip is one word)
Non-Native Speakers of English	Nonnative Speakers of English (CMOS does not hyphenate most prefixes.) Non-Native Speakers of English (OK if using AP hyphenation rules and Traditional CMOS capitalization rules.)

Online Resources:

AP Stylebook. The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law., http://www.apstylebook.com/
CMOS, The Chicago Manual of Style. http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org
Carnegie Mellon. "Capitalization." http://www.cmu.edu/styleguide/capitalization.html#hyphen
Accu-Assist.Summary: "Capitalization in Titles and Headings — Hyphenated Words." http://www.accu-assist.com/grammar-tips-archive/GrammarTip_capitalization-titles-headings-hyphenated-words.htm

Practice 1

Learning Online

Select the response with the punctuation that best completes the sentence.
Compare your response with the answer.

#	YOUR RESPONSE	CHECK YOUR ANSWER
1.	Web courses are a convenient way to learn a new subject.
2.	Students can participate in self learning.
3.	Courses, such as Micro , Economics, Accounting and Journalism are being offered online.
4.	Non speakers benefit by having the option to take a course online and on campus.
5.	Rather than sit in a two long class, students can study at their convenience.
6.	Students simply need an Internet computer …
7.	and a modern computer .
8.	It also helps to have a pro attitude to using a computer in the online course.
9.	Being able to read well on is very important.
10.	Both and first-time users will have great online learning opportunities.

Practice 2

Capitalizing Headlines

Select a correct way to capitalize each headline.
Use the traditional rules from the Chicago Manual of Style above. (CMOS 8.170)

#	YOUR RESPONSE	CHECK YOUR ANSWER
11.	Eighteen Held in Shooting Death
12.	Anti Marriage Activists Demonstrate at Capitol
13.	Woman Hit While Riding Three Bike
14.	Cuban Cigars Found at Crime Scene
15.	Pro Business Environment Found in Japan
16.	Anti Cream Removed from Store Shelves
17.	Re Our Image Abroad
18.	Vice Biden Will Travel to California
19.	President Obama Will Travel to California
20.	Twenty Students Received Awards
21.	HIV Test Available Over
22.	Knock Movie Is a Hit knock-down-drag-out – characterized by violence
23.	Richmond Bridge Accident
24.	Young Man's Twenty Birthday Bash is a Bust a bust – interrupted by police
25.	Concerto is C Minor a Major Success

Grammar-Quizzes.com

PRACTICE ON POINTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Punctuation

Hyphens & Capitalization in Headings

Linking Words to Clarify Meaning

Clarifying Meaning

Resources for Determining Use

Hyphen History: Words in Transition (CMOS 7.85)

Hyphens

Word Use

Compound Words — (CMOS 7.83)

Letter Collision or Readability — (CMOS 7.85)

Line Breaks for Printed Material

Linking Words that Modify a Noun — (CMOS 7.86)

Range of Time or Variation — (CMOS 7.89)

Prefixes

THE CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (CMOS) 7.9 #3

Prefixes

THE ASSOCIATED PRESS STYLEBOOK (AP) p.51

Prefixes

PUBLICATION MANUAL OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) p.97

Hyphens - Capitalization

Capitalization of Hyphenated Words in Titles, Headings and Headlines

Capitalization of Hyphenated Words in Titles or Headings

Comparison

Practice 1

Learning Online

Practice 2

Capitalizing Headlines