Statement Clauses: In reported speech (Indirect Speech)

On this page:
Quoted v. Reported Speech
Omit That
Said Synonyms
Sub Cls Adjustments
Deixis
Recounting Speech
Tense Adjustment
Expressions
Grammar Notes
Practice 1
Practice 2
Practice 3

Statement Clauses

In reported speech (indirect speech)

Quoted vs. Reported Statements

QUOTED STATEMENT
A quoted statement begins with a main clause including the speaker and a verb such as say or tell, and is followed by a comma and the exact words of the quote, enclosed in quotation marks. The quoted speech may also be placed before the main clause: "It's raining here," she said.
MAIN CLAUSE	QUOTE
She said,	"It's raining here."
She said,	"It was raining here, but it's not now."
She replied,	"I'll meet you at this cafe tomorrow,"
She declared,	"That umbrella is mine."

REPORTED STATEMENT
A reported statement also begins with the main clause, but instead is followed by the content of the quote as it relates to the speaker in time, person, place, and direction, at the moment of speaking. The subordinating marker that links the reported speech to the main clause.
MAIN CLAUSE	REPORTED SPEECH
She said	that it was raining there.
She informed us	that it had been raining there, but it wasn't now.
She replied	that she would meet me at that cafe the next day.
She declared	that the umbrella was hers.

Also see Said Synonyms | Quotation Marks

Said Synonyms

say (v.) – speak or pronounce words→ She said this was a good place to eat.
tell (v.) – speak or pronounce words (to someone) → She told me this was a good place to eat.
state (v.) – say something (systematically) → She stated her reasons for hiring a new CEO. (formal)
declare (v.) – state fully and clearly, especially in formal terms→ He declared himself a citizen of Canada.
claim (v.) – say (take a firm position) → He claimed that he did not receive the package.
announce (v.) – say to many, publicly → She announced that she would be working at a new company.

Also see Said Synonyms page.

Subordinate That-Clause

Omitting that

That — optional vs. included

THAT – OPTIONAL
The subordinator that is often omitted after commonly used verbs, such as say, tell or think, especially when used in informal contexts.
MAIN CLAUSE	SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
Luke said	it was raining there.
Jack told me	he was working.
Amy said	she was engaged.
Jill says	he's not moving.
Jay told us	they had to leave.

THAT – INCLUDED
The subordinator that is included after "formal" verbs; that is, verbs used in more formal contexts such as public speaking, law, business, etc. (announce, admit, declare, explain, acknowledge) List
MAIN CLAUSE	SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
The pilot informed us	that bad weather was approaching.
The officer assured us	that it was safe to walk outside.
Amy announced	that she was engaged.
Jill notified the doctor	that the child was not moving.
Jay indicated to us	that his crew had to leave.

That is also used as a determiner: I want this dog not that dog.
See Said Synonyms for other words .

Subordinate That-Clause

Adjustments

Adjusting Perspective (deixis)

SAID
Pronouns, verb tense and number, location and time adjust to the point of view of the person in the main clause.
MAIN CLAUSE	SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
My friend said,	"I'll meet you at this cafe tomorrow."
(1) Add a subordinating marker to relate that the quoted speech is being recalled by another person.	that I will meet you at this cafe tomorrow.
(2) Adjust the subject, object and possessive pronouns to the speaker's perspective (viewpoint).	(that) she will meet me at this cafe tomorrow.
(3) Adjust the verb tense and to the speaker's perspective.	(that) she would meet me at this cafe tomorrow.
(4) Adjust the adverbs and prepositional phrases for time and place to the speaker's perspective.	(that) she would meet me at that cafe the next day.
My friend said	(that) she would meet me at that cafe the next day.

TOLD
If necessary, reword the sentence so that its meaning is clear.
MAIN CLAUSE	SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
We told him,	"You can show us your video in your office next Tuesday."
(1) Add a subordinating marker to relate that the quoted speech is being recalled by another person.	that you can show us your video in your office next Tuesday..
(2) Adjust the subject, object and possessive pronouns to the speaker's perspective (viewpoint).	that he can show us his video in his office next Tuesday.
(3) Adjust the verb tense and to the speaker's perspective.	that he could show us his video in his office next Tuesday.
(4) Adjust the adverbs and prepositional phrases for time and place to the speaker's perspective.	that he could show us his video at his office the following Tuesday.
I told him	that he could show us his video in his office the following Tuesday.

¹Including that in a that-clause is optional with verbs such as say and think.

Deixis /ˈdaɪksɪs/

Adjusting Perspective

Deictic words

Deictic words, such as pronouns, time and location words, require contextual information; they are relative to the speaker. From my point of view ⇒ "I am here now." From your point of view (same time but different place) ⇒ "You are there now." From their point of view (different time and different place) ⇒ "She was there then."

Person Deixis

MY CENTER	YOUR, HIS, HER, THEIR CENTER
I / me → you	You → I / me
We / our → you	You → we / us
I / me → he / him	He / him → I / me
I / me→ she / her	She / her → I / me
We / us → they / them	They / them → we / us
I / me / we / us → it	It → I / me / we / us

Time and Place Deixis

EARLIER	NOW	LATER
before then earlier	← now →	after then later
recently	today	in the future
	tomorrow	the next day
the day before	yesterday
last week that week	this week	next week the following week

CENTER — NEAR	FAR
here →	there
this city	that city
these towns	those towns
to my house	from my house
come	go

Deixis /ˈdaɪksɪs/ (n.) / deictic (adj.) – indicating identity, time, or location from the perspective of one or more speakers. "Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and/or place." (Wiki – deixis)

Also see Prepositions for Time, Prepositions for Place, Adverbs for Time and Pop-Q - "Deictic"

Restating Speech

Recounting State of Mind

QUOTED STATEMENT
When using say or tell, the restatement is usually exact. It does nothing more than state the speech.
She said, "It looks like it's raining here."
She said, "It was raining just a minute ago."
She said, "I'll meet you at the cafe tomorrow."
She said, "That umbrella is mine."
He said, "This is my last day working here."

STATEMENT & STATE OF MIND
When using a word such as think, believe, know, etc., the restatement includes opinion about the person's cognitive or mental state as well.
She thinks [that] it will rain there. (here, there) She thinks [that] it is raining there. She thought [that] it was raining there.
She knows that it was raining just a minute ago. She knew that it had been raining.
She remembers that we are going¹ to meet at the cafe tomorrow. She remembered that we were going to meet at the cafe the next day.
She believes that his umbrella is hers. She believed that this umbrella was hers.
He understands that this is his last work day here. He understood [that] that² was his last work day here.

Related pages It–Subj Clauses, That–Subj Clauses Mental States for other words expressing cognitive state.
Note that keeping the subordinted clause in the present tense for "general truth" may be considered both formal or informal usage. Preferences vary.

¹ When recalling an event in the past (remember, recall, recollect) the modal will changes to be going in reported speech. See Will / Be going in subordinated clauses.
² Omit the relative pronoun that before the determiner pronoun that (this) to avoid repetition or confusion.

Tense Agreement

Tense Adjustment

Tense Adjustment — "Backshifting"

QUOTE	BACKSHIFTED	NOT BACKSHIFTED
Quoted speech captures speech as it is spoken. No tense change is made, even when the speech act is in the past.	In formal writing, the tense of the subordinated clause is 'backshifted' to the time frame of the verb in the main clause.	In both formal and informal writing, one can use the present tense to state fact, how things exist, or how things behave.
GENERAL TRUTH – STATE OF EXISTENCE	AS VIEWED FROM PAST	AS A PRESENT DAY TRUTH
He said, "I love rain." He said, "The earth turns." He said, "I am Canadian."	He said that he loved rain. He said that the earth turned. He said that he was Canadian.	¹He said that he loves rain. ¹He said that the earth turns. ¹He said that he is Canadian.
PAST MIXED	CHANGED STATUS	MIXED TENSES
He said, "I was Canadian, but now I am a US citizen."	He said that he had been Canadian, but now he was a US citizen.	²He said that he was Canadian, but now he is a US citizen. (informal)
SINGLE PRESENT EVENT	SAME-TIME PAST
He said, "I see a rainbow."	He said that he saw a rainbow.	*He said that he sees a rainbow. (incorrect)
SINGLE PAST EVENT	EARLIER EVENT
He said, "I forgot the umbrella."	He said that he had forgotten the umbrella.	²He said that he forgot the umbrella. (informal)
FUTURE EVENT	A TIME LATER THAN THE MOMENT HE SPOKE	A FUTURE TIME FROM NOW
He said, "Rain is expected next week."	He said that rain was expected the next week. (the coming week)	He said that rain is expected next week.
FUTURE EVENT	A PAST PREDICTION	A FUTURE TIME FROM NOW
He said, "Rain is expected Sunday."	He said that rain was expected (last) Sunday. (could be a failed prediction)	*He said that rain is expected (last) Sunday. (incorrect, impossible)

¹ Some consider this informal usage; that is, not backshifting the verb tense when the meaning of "general truth" or "state of existence" occurs in a subordinated clause.
² This may be considered informal by some. However, the past may be used when no particular importance is placed on earlier or later timing of past actions
*Yellow highlighted words are examples of incorrect usage.

(CaGEL Obligatory vs. optional backshifting 3 §6.2.2)

Expressions

Restating to capture the meaning

Expression vs. Reported Speech

EXPRESSION
Expressions are often "frozen". (An expression is two or more words that together take on a new meaning.) For this reason, it sounds awkward when tense, number or a pronoun is changed.
"You are pulling my leg!"
"You can't pull the wool over my eyes."
"Here it is!" / "Here they are!"

REPORTED SPEECH
When changing an expression to reported speech any change to tense, number or pronoun returns the phrase to its literal (word for word) meaning. It is often best to restate the expression in other words.
She said that we were pulling her leg. (awkward pronoun use) She said that we were joking. (tense change OK)
He assured us that we couldn't fool him. (re-word)
He shouted that he had found it / them. (re-word) He shouted that it was there/ there it was. (awkward)

Common Mistakes

Errors and Solutions

ERROR	SOLUTION
"You have to exercise and eat your vegetables." [impersonal you] He said that we have to exercise and eat our vegetables.	He said that you have to exercise and eat your vegetables. informal He said that everyone has to exercise and eat [his / her/ their] vegetables. (See Gender & Pronouns.) He said that one has to exercise and eat one's vegetables. very formal You is often used informally as an impersonal pronoun "anyone". It sounds awkward to adjust impersonal "you" in a subordinated clause. See impersonal pronouns
" The phone rang when I had just opened the front door to leave." [back shifting a quote that alread contains the past perfect] He explained that the phone had rung when he had just opened the door to leave when.	He explained that the phone rang as he was leaving. [simplify by avoid using tense in the when-clause] He explained that the phone rang after he had opened the door to leave. He explained that first he opened the door and then he heard the phone ring. We can use past and past perfect to contrast earlier and later past events. However, we can not add a third past event. Reword the sentence and simplify the tenses. Or state the events as a series of past events in the order that each occurred.

ERROR

SOLUTION

"You have to exercise and eat your vegetables." [impersonal you]

He said that we have to exercise and eat our vegetables.

He said that you have to exercise and eat your vegetables. informal

He said that everyone has to exercise and eat [his / her/ their] vegetables. (See Gender & Pronouns.)

He said that one has to exercise and eat one's vegetables. very formal

You is often used informally as an impersonal pronoun "anyone". It sounds awkward to adjust impersonal "you" in a subordinated clause. See impersonal pronouns

" The phone rang when I had just opened the front door to leave." [back shifting a quote that alread contains the past perfect]

He explained that the phone had rung when he had just opened the door to leave when.

He explained that the phone rang as he was leaving. [simplify by avoid using tense in the when-clause]

He explained that the phone rang after he had opened the door to leave.

He explained that first he opened the door and then he heard the phone ring.

We can use past and past perfect to contrast earlier and later past events. However, we can not add a third past event. Reword the sentence and simplify the tenses. Or state the events as a series of past events in the order that each occurred.

Grammar Notes

Traditional and Linguistic Description

Advanced

TRADITIONAL & ESL DESCRIPTION	LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION
Direct and Indirect speech "Reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. No quotation marks are used. If the reporting verb (the main verb of the sentence, e.g., said) is simle past, the verb in the noun clause will usually also be in a past form…" (UUEG 12.6–7) immediate reporting: "What did he say?" He said he wants us to speak up. [present] later reporting: "What did he say?" He said that he wanted us to practice our speeches. That before a clause "That is a conjunction with little real meaning . It is simply a connector – it shows that a clause forms part of a larger sentence." — conjunction (PEU 583) — subordinating conjunction (UUEG 365) A that clauses is used: as a connector – They believe that he is the captain. in indirect speech – He said that he was the captain. (PEU 274-6) as s subject – That he was captain was clear from his uniform. as a complement to a "be" verb – The main thing is that you are happy. As a complement to a verb – We knew that he was the captain. as a complement to an adjective – We were anxious that he might be the captain. as a complement to a noun – It was our belief that he was the captain. after "The fact" – The fact that he was the captain did not excuse his behavior. after preparatory it – It surprised us that he was the captain. (PEU 583) That omission: after many common reporting verbs: He said (that) he was the captain. We thought he really was the captain. after adjectives – I am happy (that) you came. not usually dropped after nouns – We disagreed with the captain's view that earth was flat. after conjunction expressions – We went outside so (that) we could see the stars. / It was such a beautiful night (that) we ate outside. / We are relaxing now (that) we are on vacation. as the object pronoun of a relative clause – This is the ship (that) the captain told us about. (PEU 584)	Direct reported speech gives the actual wording of the original. Indirect reported speech gives only its content. (CaGEL 11 §9) The major difference between direct and indirect speech is deixis. The deictic expressions are interpreted in relation to the original utterance, whereas in indirect speech they are interpreted wholly or predominantly in relation to the act of reporting. (1025) deictic – specifying identity or spatial or temporal location from the perspective of one or more of the participants in an act of speech or writing, in the context of either an external situation or the surrounding discourse, as we, you, here, there, now, then, this, that, the former, or the latter. that – marker of subordination in declarative clauses (CaGEL 951) "Reported speech is syntactically subordinate. It has the form of a content clause funtioning as a complement of the reporting verb: say: the reported speech is thus embedded within a matrix clause." (CaGEL 11 §9.1) Including that in a that-clause is optional with verbs such as say and think. We tend to leave it out in speech and include it in writing. That is required in more formal contexts. (UUEG 253) (CaGEL 953) (CoGEL 681)

TRADITIONAL & ESL DESCRIPTION

LINGUISTIC DESCRIPTION

Direct and Indirect speech "Reported speech refers to using a noun clause to report what someone has said. No quotation marks are used. If the reporting verb (the main verb of the sentence, e.g., said) is simle past, the verb in the noun clause will usually also be in a past form…" (UUEG 12.6–7)

immediate reporting: "What did he say?" He said he wants us to speak up. [present]
later reporting: "What did he say?" He said that he wanted us to practice our speeches.

That before a clause

"That is a conjunction with little real meaning . It is simply a connector – it shows that a clause forms part of a larger sentence."
— conjunction (PEU 583)
— subordinating conjunction (UUEG 365)

A that clauses is used:

as a connector – They believe that he is the captain.
in indirect speech – He said that he was the captain. (PEU 274-6)
as s subject – That he was captain was clear from his uniform.
as a complement to a "be" verb – The main thing is that you are happy.
As a complement to a verb – We knew that he was the captain.
as a complement to an adjective – We were anxious that he might be the captain.
as a complement to a noun – It was our belief that he was the captain.
after "The fact" – The fact that he was the captain did not excuse his behavior.
after preparatory it – It surprised us that he was the captain.

(PEU 583)

That omission:

after many common reporting verbs: He said (that) he was the captain. We thought he really was the captain.
after adjectives – I am happy (that) you came.
not usually dropped after nouns – We disagreed with the captain's view that earth was flat.
after conjunction expressions – We went outside so (that) we could see the stars. / It was such a beautiful night (that) we ate outside. / We are relaxing now (that) we are on vacation.
as the object pronoun of a relative clause – This is the ship (that) the captain told us about.

(PEU 584)

Direct reported speech gives the actual wording of the original.
Indirect reported speech gives only its content. (CaGEL 11 §9)

The major difference between direct and indirect speech is deixis. The deictic expressions are interpreted in relation to the original utterance, whereas in indirect speech they are interpreted wholly or predominantly in relation to the act of reporting. (1025)

deictic – specifying identity or spatial or temporal location from the perspective of one or more of the participants in an act of speech or writing, in the context of either an external situation or the surrounding discourse, as we, you, here, there, now, then, this, that, the former, or the latter.

that – marker of subordination in declarative clauses (CaGEL 951)

"Reported speech is syntactically subordinate. It has the form of a content clause funtioning as a complement of the reporting verb: say: the reported speech is thus embedded within a matrix clause." (CaGEL 11 §9.1)

Including that in a that-clause is optional with verbs such as say and think. We tend to leave it out in speech and include it in writing. That is required in more formal contexts. (UUEG 253) (CaGEL 953) (CoGEL 681)

Resources

Azar, Betty Schrampfer, and Stacy A. Hagen. Understanding and Using English Grammar (UUEG) . White Plains, New York: Pearson Longman, 2009. Print.
Biber, Douglas, and Stig Johansson, et al. Longman Grammar Of Spoken And Written English (LGSWE). Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999. Print.
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum, et AL. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (CaGEL) . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Print.
Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage (PEU). 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.
Wikipedia contributors. "Deixis." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 22 Feb. 2013. Web. 31 Mar. 2013.

Practice 1

On the Road

Change the direct speech to reported (indirect) speech.

Select the response from the list that best completes the sentence.
Compare your response to the answer by clicking the "check 1-12" button at the bottom, or click the "Check" button to the left as you go.

Jill said, "I love traveling with friends!"
Jill exclaimed

Feedback 1

Elena said, "I'll rent a car."
Elena announced

Feedback 2

Julie said, "I'm a good navigator."
Julie declared

Feedback 3

Jill said, "The next gas station isn't far from here."
Jill stated

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Elena said, " I think we passed that exit."
Elena commented

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Julie said, "If we stop soon, we can eat."
Julie reasoned

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Elena said, "This is the best octopus I've ever eaten!"
Elena blurted out

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Jill said, "We need to take another picture."
Jill added

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Julie said, "This town has a museum"
Julie pointed out

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10.

Elena said, "I saw an ice cream shop."
Elena whispered

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11.

Julie said, "We can't stay here all day."
Julie replied

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12.

Jill reminded them, "We still have to get gas."
Jill reminded them

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Practice 3

Cartoon Activity

Select or create a cartoon and retell the conversation as reported speech (past tense).

Select one from gocomics.com (The example below is from a "Peanuts" cartoon strip.)

Or create your own. http://plasq.com/ (30-day free trial)

Edit for Errors

Edit the conversation and include punctuation, if needed.
Compare your response to the answer by clicking the "check 21-30" button at the bottom, or click the "Check" button to the left as you go.

21.

Charlie met Linus, who was holding a big lunch sack.
Charlie said, "Don't tell me that's your lunch?"

Edit 21

Feedback 21

22.

Linus said, "Some of it."

Edit 22

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23.

Charlie asked, "What else do you have in there?"

Edit 23

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24.

Linus replied, "My skateboard."

Edit 24

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